Learning Outcome Essay

Be able to conduct and record assessments in accordance with internal and external processes and requirements 2.1 Review the assessment requirements and related procedures of learning programmes (AQA. 2012).Assessment is the process by which a learner’s skills and knowledge are reviewed in order to evaluate what they have learnt or in the case of NVQs, how they are performing against the competencies they are required to demonstrate. I see classroom assessment as having four main purposes. The first three include: Diagnostic or needs assessment purpose: To determine what students already know so teachers can decide the topics and approaches to use. Formative purpose for teacher: To assess student knowledge or performance on some key topic or dimension to inform instructional plans. Summative purpose: To judge or evaluate student performance (i.e., give a grade). In addition, research is increasingly clear that the quality of the feedback teachers give students relative to how to improve is an absolutely critical aspect of classroom assessment.(Serve, 2006) This leads to the fourth purpose: Formative purpose for students: To help students develop the skills to reflect critically on their own work. By asking students to assess themselves, teachers encourage students to engage in the type of higher-order thinking necessary for life today. The aim of assessment therefore is primarily to educate and improve student performance, not merely audit it. Assessment will ensure that learners are fairly, accurately and regularly assessed in a consistent manner, provide diagnostic information that assists both staff and learners/ candidates to provide, appropriate support to enable achievement of the learning outcomes (initial assessment), allow learners/ candidates to monitor their own progress, enable tutors to review and develop their learning programmes to achieve their intended learning outcomes, provide evidence of progress and achievement to enable accreditation and progression to take place, enable a dialogue between the learners/ candidates and tutor / assessors to ensure progression within the provision (tracking) and provide a measure of the learner’s achievement on qualification based courses (grades). (Barnet College Assessment Policy, Jan 11, 2010) FIG.1 Scheme of Assessment It is imperative that internal assessments are conducted by staff that have the appropriate knowledge, understanding and skills, that assessment evidence provided by candidates has been produced and authenticated according to the requirements of the specification and also that the consistency of the internal assessment is secured through internal standardisation as necessary. (www.llantarnamschool.net/). In recent years, assessment of student achievement has been receiving the attention of teachers, parents, researchers and education systems. This attention has highlighted assessment as integral to the teaching and learning process. Current assessment practices need to reflect changes based on new understandings of learning theories, new curricula that are being developed, new knowledge and skills that are necessary for the 21st Century and the accountability requirements of systems and governments. In this respect assessment of student achievement is changing as today’s stude nts face a world that demands new knowledge, skills and behaviours that have not yet been defined (Segers et al 2003). Students, in this fast and ever changing context, need not only develop deep understandings of disciplines but also develop the ability to analyse, synthesise and make inferences as well as think critically and problem solve. Assisting students to develop these knowledge, skills and behaviours and become life-long learners requires changes in the assessment processes at the school and classroom level. Assessment may be initial, formative or summative. (Hampshire Learning Policy and Procedures for Assessment and Internal Verification, Nov, 2012) As a history teacher I use different types of assessments to assess whether teaching has taken place in my lessons. When teachers’ classroom assessments become an integral part of the instructional process and a central tenet in their efforts to help students learn, the benefits of assessment for both students and teachers will be boundless. The purpose of these assessments is to ascertain the student’s levels of understanding and see if there is any room for improvement and whether there are any weaknesses so as to be able to correct them. My focus is to improve my assessments to make them motivating and to enhance student learning. Assessment challenges that have been identified are as follows: Figuring out what really is important  for students to know and be able to do in history. Teaching the skills of â€Å"doing history† in a world of testing that often seems to value only factual knowledge. Identifying and using assessments that provide teachers with better information than only multiple-choice exams. Getting students motivated to do a good job on essays and other written work. Helping students learn to improve their own work and produce quality products. Holding students accountable for quality work, as opposed to them just turning in something. The assessments have to be conducted and recorded in accordance with internal and external processes and requirements. I use these assessments to evaluate my practice and to identify any opportunities for improvement. FIG. 2 Assessment objectives Good assessments should follow these basic principles or the acronym AVRFI. Authenticity: All assessment activity must have in place processes to ensure that the achievement is the learner’s/ candidate’s own work. Learners/ candidates must sign a statement to this effect. Awarding Bodies boards have their own rules and regulations about authenticity and tutors/ assessors must make themselves familiar with them and abide by them. Validity: The method of assessment and the evidence provided must be appropriate and capable of demonstrating the achievement of learning outcomes/ competencies and related assessment criteria of the provision at the appropriate level. Reliability and consistency: The assessment results should be standardised across levels and provision. Moderation and standardisation must follow the College and Awarding Bodies board procedures. Fitness for purpose: Assessment must be fit for the learners/ candidates and the learning. The assessment strategy must be clearly appropriate for the target group of learners/ candidates in the correct context in which they are learning e.g. homework must be supportive, or initial diagnostic must not be intimidating. The criteria and methods which are being used to judge the work must be clear to the learner, staff and internal and external moderators /verifiers and meet and exceed the requirements of QCA/QAA, the awarding bodies and our learner/ candidate charter. Inclusiveness: Assessment should be based on learners’/ candidates’ needs. It must allow all learners/ candidates to demonstrate their achievements regardless of individual circumstances. Students, in this fast and ever changing context, need not only develop deep understandings of disciplines but also develop the ability to analyse, synthesise and make inferences as well as think critically and problem solve. Assisting students to develop these knowledge, skills and behaviours and become life-long learners requires changes in the assessment processes at the school and classroom level. Current learning theories attempt to capture all the parameters of human learning and provide information on how people learn. Common threads through learning theories indicate directions that have important implications for the educative process. (www.barnetsouthgate.ac.uk/ ) My assessments are divided into three distinct classes, which are: initial/diagnostic, formative and summative assessments. Initial/diagnostic Assessments: This is a crucial part of the learning process that provides the information needed to decide a learner’s starting point. These assessments take place prior to the course commencement and it helps teachers to know and recognize about learners needs or aspects. Practically it helps me to identify the learners prior knowledge, such as learner needs or difficulties for which I may plan an additional support for them (Reece, I. and Charlton, M. 2007). This can also help me to check if they have any evidence based recognition of prior learning (RPL). Initial assessments can assist me check their literacy, numeracy and ICT levels and are considered to evaluate student skills, knowledge, strength and areas for developments. Formative Assessments: These are on-going assessments that take place throughout the course process. Formative assessment is focused on improving student motivation and learning with the goal of producing higher–quality work or thinking. There are two different audiences for formative assessment. One audience is the teacher. That is many teachers might check student understanding by asking questions or by observing students as they discuss a topic in small groups. These teachers are informally collecting data that will help them determine what needs to happen next in instruction. So the teacher is therefore the data user. The second audience for formative assessment is the student. Students need to know what will move their essay answer on a particular question from a C to an A. They need to know what it means to read content deeply for understanding and how their strategies for studying content can be improved. Research shows that providing students with effective feedback can increase  student achievement significantly (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Feedback is most effective when it is timely, occurring within one to two days of the work; when it provides feedback specific to the student’s work; and when it is relative to a criterion or standard. Formative assessment can therefore be said to assess learners’ performance and understanding levels during the course and learning session. In my classes I use different methods to assess my learners. They can be questions and answers (Why, When, How, What), multiple choice questions (A, B, C, D), Practical tests, Assignments, and the final project (Reece, I. and Charlton, M. 2007). These assessments can be set as an internal assessment, for example before I start my lesson, I can do a ten minutes quiz test on my pervious lesson in order to find out and monitor my students learning process (How much they understand), highlight any areas which need further development, and lastly to see if they are able and ready for the last assessment on the course or what’s so called summative assessments. Types of Formative Assessment There is a large range of formative assessment methods available. This includes, Question and Answer in the Lesson This is perhaps the most commonly used method and is almost instinctive for teachers. It gives instant feedback, can be used to develop motivation but is largely ephemeral – that is to say that it is momentary and difficult to record. Short Tests and Quizzes These are either from textbooks or devised by the teacher. These are informal, can be fun and marks can be simply recorded. Used with care they can become part of everyday teaching and learning. Homework Exercises These vary in purpose, design and complexity. ‘Purpose’ is the key word here. Students will make good use of homework if they feel it is useful, for example, preparation of material for a class discussion, seeing how a piece of writing ends, developing a skill, are all appealing tasks. Skills Assessment using Formal Assessment Criteria These may be the foundation for many skills-based courses. This method  requires experience in ‘on the hoof’ assessment and systematic recording. Observation of Performance This is often used in the arts such as music and skill assessment such as team and leadership exercises. It needs expert and experienced assessors. Assignments This term spans a vast range of tasks but an example might be individual research assignments say for a group project. A very useful and increasingly used method, especially in conjunction with homework. May involve library and internet investigations, visits and interviews. However it is difficult to manage and assess. Projects Increasingly used in modern education as it is felt that developing your own learning material/methods gives you an ‘ownership’ of your own learning experience. The assessment methods of the various project components need careful design and clear communication to the students. Written Questions / Exercises with Short, Extended or Multiple-choice Answers Very widely used. Easy to design, mark and assess. Simulations, Business Games Almost guaranteed to produce lively learning sessions. Can teach a number of skills imaginatively and effectively. The better ones contain useful directions to possible methods of assessment. May well be time-consuming. Conferencing / Reviews / Audit This involves sitting down with learners and reviewing their written work/homework/progress in general. A very useful and beneficial process for teachers and students. Can be used to introduce care, involvement and motivation into the teacher-learner relationship. Three points to watch when operating it as a method. 1. It can be time consuming as you have to give all students a review session. (If you do not – those who are omitted will feel rejected!) 2. If you do it in class you must ensure that those not involved have something useful to be getting on with. 3. Make notes on student performance immediately after the review, not during it. Summative Assessments: Summative assessment looks at whether a student has achieved the desired learning goals or met standards. In the classroom, summative assessments usually occur at the end of instruction and document what  students have learned. Looking at the grades in a teacher’s grade book should give an idea of what the ke y instructional goals or outcomes were for a grading period. These grades most likely represent summative assessments (tests, quizzes, projects, reports, written assignments etc) that tell the teacher whether the student has mastered the skills or learned the content. A key aspect of summative assessment is determining which level students need to master the content or thinking. Tests that define mastering content at the level of memorizing events, names and facts are less likely to building students’ thinking skills than tests that ask students to write about big conflicts or themes that recur over time. Therefore good summative assessments are useful. The assessment must provide you with useful information about student achievement in the course. The assessment must be tied to the learning goals you have and those learning goals must be important. If you assess unimportant or trivial concepts or just use chapter tests without really looking at the items critically in terms of whether they reflect your teaching, what have you learned a bout what your students know? Valid for your purposes, the assessment must measure what it is supposed to measure. For example, if you ask students to draw a map reflecting the change in U.S. borders from 1789-1820, you will need to ensure that the assessment is scored based on students’ understanding of the concepts not based on their ability to draw. Sometimes, the way the test is presented (e.g., small print with lots of complicated or confusing directions or too many items) can make it a less valid measure of the content being tested. It may be more a measure of student persistence than a measure of their knowledge of the content. As a teacher, taking a test yourself before giving it to your students will help ensure that the items reflect content you actually taught. It will also help you to decide if there are some aspects of the questions or layout that are content irrelevant, representing extraneous hurdles for students that could be simplified. Reliable, reliability has to do with the extent to which the score you give a student on a particular assessment is influenced by unsystem atic factors. These factors are things that can fluctuate from one testing or grading situation to the next or from one student to the next in ways that are unrelated to students’ actual achievement level (e.g., luck in guessing the right answer, lack of time to complete the assessment on a  particular day, teacher bias or inconsistency in scoring of essays across students or from one test to the next). Thinking about how to reduce these factors such that the scores given are likely to be the most accurate reflection of students’ true achievement levels on the task or test should be an on-going process for teachers. Fair. The assessment must give the same chance of success to all students. For example, a large project that is done at home can be biased against low-income students, favouring students whose parents have extra time to help them over those whose parents need to work. In this type of assessment I can participate in forming and marking final examinations, selection type questions (Explanations, Definition and Diagrams), nature type questions (Alternative, Multiple choice, or Compulsory), and dissertation assessments (Reece, I. and Charlton, M. 2007). Whether learning can be called the process of human change and transformation or the acquisition of knowledge and expertise, it â€Å"always entails participation in relationship and community transformation both of the person and of the social world† (Packer & Goicoechea, 2000). Summative Assessment Methods currently in use include: Unseen Examination in controlled conditions (e.g. 3 questions in 3 hours) Seen exam paper in controlled conditions (as above, but you know the question(s) in advance) Open Book or Take-Away exam Multiple Choice Test in controlled conditions (paper-based) In-class test Essay or Report (e.g. on an individual or group project) Portfolio Dissertation Presentation (may be peer-assessed and/or tutor-assessed) Performance (e.g. musical or dramatic) Oral examination (e.g. foreign language speaking skills) Attendance Participation in lectures and/or seminars/online discussion boards, or group work (may be peer-assessed and/or tutor-assessed) Creation of a web page Learning theory emphasises learning with understanding. This means that teaching approaches should emphasise understanding rather than memorisation and teachers should assess for understanding rather than surface knowledge  and recall of facts. Current learning theory emphasises the importance of earning with understanding (Bransford et al, 2000). Bruner (1915-) supports this with his discovery learning theory. This is an inquiry- based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her past learning experience or and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. He states that children are better off discovering facts and relationships for themselves. This means that curriculum and teaching approaches should emphasise understanding rather than memorisation, should provide opportunities for in-depth study to allow for firm foundation of knowledge and conceptual development and should enhance student abilities to recognise and use meaningful patterns of information. Assessment processes, then, demonstrate deep understanding of concepts rather than surface knowledge and recall of facts. Learning Outcome 3 Understand expectations in relation to the minimum core in assessing learners in lifelong learning 3.1 Review ways in which minimum core elements can be demonstrated in assessing learners in lifelong learning. Key skills have become established as an integral part of the vocational curriculum. They are also becoming an increasingly important part of many academic programmes. There has been a longstanding concern in this country with the standards of literacy and numeracy of the population. The 1992 DES discussion paper on Curriculum Organization and Classroom Practice in Primary Schools stated that to function effectively in the 21st Century, our children will need higher standards of literacy and numeracy than ever before’ (DES, 1992:11) and led to the introduction of the literacy hour in schools in 1998 and the establishment of the teaching assistant role in an attempt to raise the standards of literacy and numeracy. Functional skills now form a core part of all four of the different qualification routes open to young people such as GCSE/ A Level, Foundation, Diploma and Apprenticeship as well as being a stand-alone qualification in their own right at Entry Level, Level 1 and Level 2. The minimum core identifies two requirements placed on teachers working within the sector. The first of these requires teachers to recognise the ways in which low levels of  literacy, numeracy and ICT skills might constitute a barrier to the learning of their students. This means that within the teaching of their own particular subject specialism, teachers should be able to support learners in these areas, which then leads to the second requirement that they themselves should possess a minimum level of personal skills in these areas, currently set at level 2. FIG.3 Functional Elements In my practice, I formally and informally assess the learners’ literacy skill by demonstrating the ability to read, write clearly and improve on their vocabulary during the lesson with their self / peer / group work through talking with, listening to and observing them, and after the lesson; through reading and marking learner work, then give a positive feedback as emphasized by Lewis and Wray (2001, P51). For example, during one of the history classes titled important dates with the LO: To be able to read and write big numbers in words. Using Q & A, I listened to each learners as they try to call out the number (1910) written on the smart board, and observe their work as they try to write it down in words (one thousand, nine hundred and ten) in their individual notebooks. I checked their work for the spelling, correct placing the comma, before ticking in front of the sides of each correct work with a red pen to encourage and praise the learners efforts, and commenting positiv ely with well done, good effort feedback (Ellis. 2011). Learners that made mistakes got a dot at the side of the error to help them visualize and adjust their work accordingly. FIG.5: STIRRING LEARNING (2013) Diagnostic assessment for learners as required by the national curriculum can be used to identify and improve their minimum core skills, and knowledge through observation and questioning as they show competency and understanding towards the subject. The proposal for reform in the 14-19 sectors suggest that the teaching and learning of functional skills can be achieved through a number of different approaches ranging from discrete lessons through to fully embedding them within subject delivery. The Excellent Gateway defines embedding as teaching and learning which combines the development of literacy, language and numeracy with vocational and other  skills and suggests that the skills acquired should provide the learners with the confidence, competence and motivation necessary for them to succeed in life, at work and in life. Embedding therefore seeks to integrate the teaching of subject matter and functional skills, taking advantage of naturally occurring circumstances in which the two come together. This type of approach is quiet resource –intensive but it is expected that in the long term functional skills will remain the responsibility of specialists in this area but will be reinforced in the rest of the curriculum in all the other sessions.(DCSF: 2009:6). The issue was felt to be so important that the LLUK suggested in 2007, that all initial teacher training courses must equip all the trainees so that they are able to teach their own learning programmes in ways that take account of the language, literacy, numeracy and ICT needs of their learners. They also added that all the teachers need to be confident in working with colleagues to ensure that the development and needs of language, literacy, numeracy and ICT of their learners are met. The three skills of communication, application of number and information technology are now normally an integral part of all GNVQ qualifications. Teachers have to demonstrate through assessment and verification how they are including th ese skills in their assignments for the course. The Dearing Review of 16-19 qualifications (Dearing, 1996) highlighted the importance of students developing these skills on each of the main routes into the National Qualifications Framework. Accordingly QCA in conjunction with the main awarding bodies has developed key skills units from level one to level three which can be incorporated into different courses. â€Å"Coverage of the minimum core is intended to provide a teacher with the minimum level of skills in language, literacy, numeracy and ICT (LLN & I) that are essential to teachers who work in the lifelong learning sector.† City and Guilds (2008:3) Learners’ particular literacy, language, numeracy and ICT needs can be established through initial assessment, talking to learners, observing them completing activities or using simple self- assessment tests. â€Å"Recognizing and using a variety of different teaching styles is particularly important to support literacy, language and number skills development. Learn ers working towards literacy, language, and numeracy goals will benefit from teaching which work to their strengths. The teaching styles which you adopt will have an impact on the type of language skills  your learners will need to acquire. A didactic approach for example, may require listening and note taking skills predominantly, whereas a more learner – centred approach may require higher level reading skills as learners are asked to interpret information for them. Even when we are trying to adapt to individual learning styles, the variety of activity used will have an impact on the language skills required within a particular programme of study. The language demands placed on learners are a direct result of teacher led mediation of learning.† [Skills for Life Quality Initiative Training Materials] Teachers of all areas of specialism in the lifelong learning sector increasingly work with learners whose literacy, language, numeracy and ICT skills are below Level 2 of the Qualifications and Credit Framework (QCF). Learners’ difficulties in these areas can be a barrier to achievement of their goals. Teachers and trainee teachers will have high levels of skill in their own area of specialism. They are not expected to be specialist teachers of literacy, language, numeracy or ICT. However, there will be many naturally occurring activities for developing these skills within all areas of learning. The minimum core provides a foundation upon which all teachers can develop their own skills as well as their ability to identify when it is appropriate to work with subject specialists. (Minimum Core of Teachers’ Knowledge, Understanding and Personal Skills Pg. 3, LLUK 2007, updated LSIS 2013). Therefore they also need the knowledge and skills to identify opportunities for their learners to develop the increasingly higher levels of skills in literacy, language, numeracy and ICT required when taking other qualifications and in the workplace. Work done by teachers who specialise in teaching literacy, language, numeracy and ICT forms part of the solution, but there is also much that teachers of other areas of specialism can do to ensure the success of their learners. Functional skills are focused on the practical skills that allow individuals to engage confidently, effectively and independently in life, further learning and work. The intended added value of functional skills was that they equip people to apply English, ICT and mathematics in practical situations, choosing appropriate skills and techniques to solve problems. So functional skills should be integrated into the curriculum and allow learners to apply these skills in real life. The knowledge within the subject has to be linked with the practical skills, helping them to think  creatively. Wilson (2009) In the context of the Skills for Life strategy, embedded teaching and learning combines the development of literacy, language and numeracy with vocational and ot her skills. The skills acquired provide learners with the confidence, competence and motivation necessary for them to progress, gain qualifications and to succeed in life and at work. Individuals at any age who possess these skills will be able to participate and progress in education, training and employment as well as develop and secure the broader range of aptitudes, attitudes and behaviours that will enable them to make a positive contribution to the communities in which they live and work. (National Numeracy, For Everyone for life, 2013) Literacy skills help build the confidence of an individual while reading, writing, speaking and listening. It helps effective communication where information can be passed clearly through either speaking or writing. It helps understand information and act appropriately. It helps to make presentations, write reports, take part in group discussions and analyse ideas and information. It helps present information in a logical sequence, in the correct format usi ng correct grammar. I used the question and answer as well as the brainstorming method to assess the literacy skills of my learners. In groups learners also constructed sentences from jumbled up words, making sure that the sentences were grammatically correct. It is important that learners master literacy skills so they can converse and communicate adequately in a globalised community. I found that some people would struggle in their chosen work as they lack the requisite literacy skills to communicate and be understood. Numeracy skills help to understand various mathematical concepts, and also how to apply them. It helps increase analytical, problem solving and reasoning skills, identify errors and validate results. It helps use numbers and calculations to process data, solve complex problems and helps with logical working, interpretation and comparison of results in various forms like tables, graphs, charts and diagrams. These skills are the cornerstone of an increasingly computerised and scientific world and it is vital that learners are proficient in them. Although my lesson was history I used numeracy skills by asking different dates of major historical events like the start of the Second World War. Learners were able to state how long the conflict took by subtracting the start date from the end. ICT skills help an individual to confidently use  ICT systems for various purposes. Individuals can use ICT to interpret information and can also enhance their learning and improve the quality of their work. They can find information from a variety of sources. It also helps with digital or electronic communication, interpretation, storage and retrieval of information. Learners will also use ICT to look for more information regarding their work on the web, and gain ideas from different sources and also be able to compare, review or evaluate their results or conclusion with the results of the other various sources available, thereby improving their ICT skills. They can also be motivated to use spread sheets to draw tables and graphs, and use word processor to edit the literature. I used an interactive board and a web based presentation to illustrate the use of ICT in my lesson. Most educational research on literature and numeracy development is based on children. Key educational theories tied to child development provide a useful starting point for a description and contrast with some of the available models of adult learning that can be drawn on by vocational and academic tutors. ( Hickely, J. 2013 ) I am going to reflect on the strategies that can be used to support learners as they develop their literacy skills within an embedded setting. I am also going to use this opportunity to reflect upon the rationale for embedding functional literacy skills into vocational and academic settings. There are a number of theories relating to how language is acquired but in general terms it is accepted that language development is innate but must be developed through exposure to language. In effect this means that language is developed through nature and nurture. Behaviourist learning was made popular by Skinner, (1973) and is based on what can be seen and described. He suggested that children acquire language skills through imitation and reinforcement through positive reinforcement by those around them. The main basis for this belief is that children who do not hear language spoken do not speak and that children who are exposed to language acquire language skills gradually. In this instance it is therefore important for the learners to be totally immersed in language skills as they learn. This will help them master literacy skills as they learn other subjects. Learning Outcome 4 Be able to evaluate own assessment practice Review the effectiveness of own assessment practice, taking account of the views of learners As well as assessing the learners, self-evaluation is a mark of professionalism in teaching. Hounsell (2009:20) calls it â€Å"an integral part of good professional practice†. Self- assessment involves learners taking responsibility for monitoring and making judgements about their own learning. This is a process that does always not come easily to all learners as they do not always value or trust their own judgements, or have the necessary skills to make a judgement. As a result self-assessment often requires a strong structure in the initial stages until learners or teachers feel more comfortable with it as a process and have acquired the skills required to make it a worthwhile activity. Just as many of us, consciously or unconsciously, tend to use those teaching strategies we experienced as learners, so our own experience of being assessed plays a key role in the development of our r epertoire as a teacher. (Armitage et al, 2003:154) The nature and impact of assessment depends on the uses to which the results of that assessment are put. A system whose main priority is to generate information for internal use by teachers on the next steps in pupils’ learning may have different characteristics and effects from one where the drive is to produce a qualification which will provide a grade on which an employer or a university admissions tutor might rely in order to judge the suitability of a candidate for employment or further study. (Mansell et al 2009:5) Novice teachers often have intrinsic motives for evaluation. They want to know whether they are doing well or as expected. They might wish to discover their own strengths and weaknesses and compare their performance with that of experienced colleagues whom they respect Hounsell, (2009:23). However, once the novice has achieved a desired comfort level with the teaching role, continued self-evaluation guards against complacency and enables on-going improvement and freshness, helping to maintain job satisfaction. Assessment and instruction are often conceived as curiously separate in both time and purpose†. The measurement approach to classroom assessment, â€Å"exemplified by standardized tests and teacher-made emulations of those tests,† presents a barrier to the implementation of more constructivist approaches to instruction. (Educational Researcher, Vol. 29, No. 7, pp. 4) The central ideas of social efficiency and scientific management in the curriculum circle were closely linked, respectively, to  hereditarianism theories of individual differences and to associationist and behaviourist learning theories. These psychological theories were, in turn, served by scientific measurement of ability and achievement. For John Franklin Bobbitt, a leader in the social efficiency movement, a primary goal of curriculum design was the elimination of waste (1912), and it was wasteful to teach people things they would never use. Bobbitt’s most telling principle was that each individ ual should be educated â€Å"according to his capabilities.† These views led to a highly differentiated curriculum and a largely utilitarian one that disdained academic subjects for any but college preparatory students. Alongside these curriculum theories, Edward Thomdike’s (1922) associationism and the behaviourism of Hull (1943), Skinner (1938, 1954) and Gagne (1965) conceived of learning as the accumulation of stimulus-response associations. (Educational Researcher, Vol. 29, No. 7, pp. 5) Thorndike was both the originator of associationist learning theory and the â€Å"father† of â€Å"scientific measurement. The cognitive revolution reintroduced the concept of mind. In contrast to past, mechanistic theories of knowledge acquisition, we now understand that learning is an active process of mental construction and sense making. From cognitive theory we have also learned that existing knowledge structures and beliefs work to enable or impede new learning, that intelligent thought involves self-monitoring and awareness about when and how to use skills, and that â€Å"expertise† develops in a field of study as a principled and coherent way of thinking and representing problems, not just as an accumulation of information. (Educational Researcher, Vol. 29, No. 7, pp. 5) In my experience I have found out that the data you collect for yourself can be formative and forward looking, whereas other available feedback data tends to be more summative and backward looking. Extrinsic motivations for evaluation cannot be ignored. There may be requirements connected with your formal status as to probation and ‘tenure’, monitoring by external bodies such as the Quality Assurance Agency, and you may wish to seek personal recognition of your teaching expertise through schemes such as that of the Higher Education Academy. In the context of my own teaching practice I would begin initial assessment within the classroom using an ice breaker. This not only allows the group to get to know each other, but also identifies participants existing knowledge or skills and gives further  indications of preferred learning styles and tendencies. Based on the key questions within the CIF (The Common Inspection Framework used by Ofsted and the Adult Learning Inspectorate (ALI) as the basis for inspecting post-16 education and training focuses on the learner and learning. is : How well do learners learn, progress and ultimately achieve ?(Jones 2005:20) Alternatively other forms of assessment such as questions and answers or a quiz could be used. This gives a good starting point for work on students Individual Learning Plan (ILP) which will constantly evolve with the use of feedback and communication between student and tutor giving a clear picture of progress a and revised goals. I would endeavour to use all of the above assessment activities particularly focusing on those that provide an active learning experience, where learning is more enjoyable, better understood and recalled more effectively, teaching by doing. All activities would be supported by hand outs given at the start of the session. Assessment makes teaching effective teaching. Mere presentation, without assessment of what the learners have made of what you have offered them—is not teaching. So assessment is not a discrete process, but integral to every stage of teaching. So, that at the end, learning is believed, with evidence to have taken place (Jones 2005) In conclusion recording provides the platform from which teachers can base their reporting to others and is a mechanism for evaluating learning and teaching. A succinct account of teaching and learning aims as in a scheme of work. This usually follows the curriculum and is a brief indication of the teaching methods REFERENCES (1) Wilson 2009, Synthesising Affect and Cognition in Teaching and Learning, Social Psychology of Education: an International Journal 12 (2) (2) Shepard, L.A, The Role of Assessment in a Learning Culture, Educational Researcher, Vol. 29, No. 7, pp. 4-14 (3) Segers et al 2003, the role of scaffolding and motivation in CSCL, Computers & Education, November 2012 (4) Reece, I. Walker, S. 2007, Teaching, Training and Learning: A Practical Guide, 6th Edition. Sunderland Business Education Publishers Ltd (5) National Numeracy, For Everyone for life, 2013 (6) Edward-Gray, D, Griffin, C, Nasta, T. 2000, Training to Teach in Further and Adult Education, Nelson Thornes. (7) Burhuss Fredrick, Skinner, 1976, About Behaviorism, Vintage Books Edition (8) Julia Hickely, 2013, Literacy for QTLS: Achieving the Minimum Core, Routledge (9) Bransford et al 2000, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition, Brain matter (10) Packer & Goicoechea, 2000, Sociocultural and Constructivist Theories of Learn.pdf (11) Hounsell, D. Enhancing Teaching & Learning in Higher Education, NU2010, Dialog for Là ¤rande, University of Stockholm, 13-15 October 2010 (12) Barnet College, Assessment Policy, www.barnetsouthgate.ac.uk/ (13) Inclusive learning approaches for literacy, language, numeracy and ICT, Companion guide to the minimum core, November 2007 (14) Minimum core of teachers’ knowledge, understanding and personal skills, LLUK 2007, updated LSIS 2013 (15) Hampshire Learning Policy and Procedures for Assessment and Internal Verification, 2012 (16) Bruner, J.S. On Knowing: Essays for the left hand. Cambridge, Mass: Havard University Press, 1967 (17) www.llantarnamschool.net/ (18) Armitage, A. et al ,2003, Teaching and Training in Post-Compulsory Education, 2nd Edition, OUP (19) Gould, J and Roffe-Barentsen, J. 2014. Achieving your Diploma in Education and Training, SAGE (20) Mansell et al., 2009, Nfer, Evidence for Excellence in Education, and Assessment Reform Group. Assessment in Schools: Fit for Purpose? A Commentary by the Teaching and Learning Research Programme. London: Teaching and Learning Research Programme [online]. Available: www.tlrp.org/pub/documents/assessment.pdf[18 September 2014]. (21) Jones C. A. (Dr) 2005: 13-25), Assessment for learning, Published by the Learning and Skills Development Agency. www.LSDA.org.uk (22) AQA. 2012:23. GCSE Specification, Mathematics For exams June 2014 onwards for certification June 2014 onwards, A (3 units, terminally assessed) 4 3 6 0 (23) Barnett. C. A 2012 How to create assessment opportunities that meet the need of learner H34. Cited in SCCD Hand Notes: 2012 Developing Differentiation and Lesson Panning skills. ‘‘Teaching and Learning Styles – Lesson Plans† (24) Coffield, F, Moseley, D.,Hall, E., & Ecclest Celestine 2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. (25) Ellis, V. (2011: 1-34), Learning and Teaching in Secondary Schools, 4th Edition.115. (26) Gravels, A (2012:96-112). (2nd Edn) Passing PTLLS Assessments Chapter 10, 11, 12 Sage Publications, UK. BIBLIOGRAPH 1) Bagnall, G. et al (2004) the effectiveness of self-assessment on the identification of learner needs, learner activity, and impact on clinical practice. 2) Biggs J. Teaching for quality learning at university. Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999 3) Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. 4) Brown, S., Rust, C., Gibbs, G. (1994) Strategies for Diversifying Assessment Oxford Centre for Staff Development, UK 5) Hatfield, Susan. (1992) Department Level Assessment: Promoting Continuous Improvement 6) Nightingale, P., Te Wiata, I.T., Toohey, S., Ryan, G., Hughes, C., Magin, D. (1996) Assessing Learning in Universities Professional Development Centre, University of New South Wales, Australia. 7) Shepherd, Lorrie, (2000) the Role of Assessment in a Learning Culture, Educational Researcher, Vol. 29, No. 7, (Oct., 2000), American Educational Research Association Educational Researcher, Vol. 29, No. 7 8) Tummons J, (2007) Becoming a Professional Tutor in the Lifelong Learning Sector Learning Matters, Exeter. 9) University of Hull, (2014), The UK Professional Standards Framework for teaching and supporting learning in higher education.pdf WEBSITES Assessment, Recording & Reporting for Learning http://www.charterhousesquareschool.co.uk/assessment-recording-reportingfor learning.html ASSESSMENT, RECORDING AND REPORTING POLICY (2012) http://www.qehbristol.co.uk/media/PDFs/Policies/assessment%20policy %20juniors%20-%20dec%202012.pdf Assessing learners in lifelong learning – http://qualifications.vtct.org.uk/ unit pdf/UV40815.pdf Difference between Assessment and Evaluation? – http://Uk.ask.com/ question/difference-between-assessment-and-evaluation Engage in assessment; Different ways to assess your students http://www.reading.ac.uk/engageinassessment/different-ways-toassess/ Formative Teaching Methods – http://geoffpetty.com/wp-content uploads/2012/12/FormativeTeachingMethods2.doc How to create assessment opportunities that meet the need of learner H3 – http://charlottepttls.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/how-to-createassessment- opportunities. htmlScheme of Assessment – http:// filestore.aqa.org.uk/subjects/AQA-4365-W-SP-14.PDF The Data Protection Act 2003- httl.www.regulatorylaw.co.uk/data protection.html

Female Infanticide

Imagine a world with no women. There as no wives, no sisters, no daughters, and no mothers. Unfortunately this world is on the brink of becoming a scary reality for Asian countries such as China and India. Due to attempts to control population and the low value associated with females in these societies historically and culturally, both China and India are now facing a serious gender imbalance. Female infanticide and sex-selective abortion are responsible for this gender imbalance.The two atrocious practices have led to problems such as elevated rates in female kidnapping and slave trade, as well as forced marriages. This paper will focus on the roots of female infanticide and sex-selective abortions as well as the problems these practices have presented. According to current statistics, there are approximately 1,338,299,512 people living in China (Cao et al. 2012). For every 120 males, there are only 100 females. A study published in the British Medical Journal found that China has approximately 32 million more males than females under the age of 20 (Cao et al. 012). In a 1999 Chinese census report, the imbalance between the sexes revealed that the imbalance is now so distorted that there are 111 million males in China – more than three times the population of Canada – who will be unable to find a wife (Hvistendahl 2008). As a result of this gender imbalance, the rate of female kidnapping and slave trading has increased. There are 8,000 women on average per year who are rescued by authorities from â€Å"forced† marriages (Cao et al. 1012). A major factor responsible for the distortion of this gender imbalance in China is the one child policy.In 1979, the Chinese Government implemented a new act under the family planning policy. This new act officially restricts married, urban couples to having only one child, while allowing exemptions for several cases such as rural couples, ethnic minorities, and parents without siblings (Hesketh et al. 2 011). Ideally, the act was implemented to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems arising from the over-population issues in China. The one child policy offers couples that delay childbearing a longer maternity leave as well as other social benefits.Couples that have a second child without a permit are at risk of being fined thousands of dollars, and may also be penalized by suffering wage cuts and reduced access to social services (Hvistendahl 2008). Approximately 35. 9% of China’s population is subject to the â€Å"one child policy. † The policy is said to have prevented some 400 million births from 1979 to 2011 (Hesketh et al. 2011). The one child policy has been the source of conflict for a variety of reasons. The main focus has been the increased rate of female infanticide.Female infanticide is the intentional killing of baby girls due to the preference for male babies and is attributed to the low value associated with the birth of females (Weijing 2010). Poverty, famine, and population control are inter-related factors. Where safe and effective birth control is unavailable, infanticide is used to selectively limit the growth of a community. Infanticide allows for selection of the fittest or most desirable offspring, with sick, deformed, female, or multiple births targeted for disposal (Hvistendahl 2008).Males are viewed as more valuable to have as children in the Chinese society because they can work for higher wages and provide for their families. Females are viewed as a burden to the family because unless they live in a major city, they are expected to stay home with the family instead of pursuing an education or working (Hesketh et al. 2011). From the moment they are born, women are considered inferior to men. Women are viewed as submissive and weak whereas males were dominant and strong. Chinese women are taught from a very young age to look after the men in their households.They continue to live the rest of their lives a s subservient to males (Reed 2011). There is a principle of three obediences by which women are expected to live, obedience to their father while living under his roof, obedience to their husband and his family once married, and obedience to the eldest son once widowed (Caldwell and Bruce 2005). In the countryside, less than half a million out of a total rural population of eight hundred million were receiving pensions in 1981. Individuals and families who live in rural areas rely on their off spring to be part of their working staff.If such families are only allowed to have one child, they much prefer to have males because they believe they are of more use for jobs that require physical labor. (Hong, 1987) If a Chinese family who is not secure financially does indeed have a daughter than she will most likely not marry, Hong explains. â€Å"For economic reasons, families with daughters are unlikely to let them go to grooms villages to live because they will be needed not only for t he parents old age security but also to boost the life- long earning potential of the household. (Hong 1987 pg. 320) In Chinese culture, it is said, â€Å"a woman’s greatest duty is to have a son. † If a woman does not give birth to a son, her husband will often take another wife in hopes of another woman carrying his heir (Hvistendahl 2008). Women are viewed as so inferior, that often, poor families would sell their daughters as servants to rich families. Despite the egalitarian nature of Chinese society, many parents believe that having a son is a vital element of providing for their old age.When a daughter is married off, she is no longer available to take care of her parents in their old age, as she is now responsible for her husband and his family (Hesketh et al. 2011). Historically, the way that women were viewed in Chinese society made it clear that with the one-child policy in place, couples would prefer to have a son rather than a daughter. It is for this reas on that rates of female infanticide increased in China. Female infanticide is not a problem that is new to Chinese culture. Studies have shown that evidence of female infanticide in China dates back to 800 B. C.E. Until the fourth century, infanticide was neither illegal nor immoral (Weijing 2010). Legal sanctions against infanticide were introduced in the fourth century as Christianity infused secular laws (Weijing 2010). â€Å"We feel it's a serious problem that everybody should be concerned about and aware of,† said Wanda Franz, president of the National Right to Life Committee. â€Å"This is a form of abortion that, from our point of view is especially egregious. Abortion is claimed to help women; obviously in these cases, females are the direct victims, because women in these cultures are not valued. Caldwell and Bruce 2005)† Another country that has high rates of infanticide is India. Unlike China, India does not have a one-child policy in place, but instead, par ents of daughters who are to get married, must pay a dowry. Although the dowry is illegal in most of India, in areas of poverty, most parents still struggle and are expected to pay the families into which their daughters marry (Mahalingam et al. 2007). The dowry consists of large amounts of money and valuable goods. For families with several daughters this can be a serious financial burden (Dube and Dube 1999).In India, the practice of female infanticide is even more common. As in China, the birth of a daughter is seen as a liability. In India the sex ratio is 93 women for every 100 men, but in some regions there are fewer than 85 women per 100 men (Ahmad 2010). According to a recent report by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) up to 50 million girls and women are missing from India' s population as a result of systematic gender discrimination in India. Another study showed that approximately 2,000 females are illegally aborted every day in India (Mahalingham et al. 2007).I ndia is known throughout the world for being a country of a large population, a diverse culture, and beautiful sites. A part of India that is coming out of the dark and being discussed rapidly by academics is the extent of female infanticide and sex selective abortion. Statistics show in a United Nations report, that India has a higher death rate of females under four years old than any other country in the world. Poorer nations such as Peru have a female death percentage compared to males of seventy three percent, where a more developed country such as Japan has a female death rate of eighty three percent.The national average in India has a death rate of one hundred and seven percent compared to the death rate of boys, and in the area of Rajasthan the death rate of females under four years old is one hundred and nineteen percent compared to boys of the same age. A percentage of these deaths can be contributed to the decreasing health of female toddlers in India. Verma explains, in most regions of India girls are only fed after the males in the family. If the mother of a family does not receive proper nutrition than the chances of her daughter receiving it are very slim.The other major reason for mortality rates of young female children is so high is due to the practice of female infanticide. Virma, while travelling through her homeland on a search of qualitative research about the practice of female infanticide, came to find just how common female infanticide is across India, particularly in rural areas. Virma explains throughout many villages the male head of the household orders the daughter to be killed. In a particular interview a woman was screaming and crying, her husband told his wife, if she did not kill the baby than he would smash her head in until she was dead. Virma, 2005) In the village of a Bihar, the killing of female infants is so common; the locals repeatedly state, â€Å"The killing of girls is not a sin. † Midwives who play a large r ole in rural societies of India openly admit how many female infants they have killed. One stated â€Å"I have killed at least sixty five female babies in the last ten years. † (Verma 2005 Pg. 29) In the same villages midwives are paid a fee of one hundred rupees if the baby is a boy, twenty-five rupees if the infant is a girl, and fifty rupees if the midwife kills, or disposes of the female child. Verma, 2005) There are many different ways in which the female infants are killed; two common practices include starving the baby to death, or poisoning her with tobacco or oil. Many midwives feel that they are â€Å"liberating the female infants soul by killing them. They believe the alternative, being a woman in many parts of India is much worse than being dead. (Verma 2005) Female children who are raised in India are aware of the way they are treated by society and within their own families.In many instances they understand the expense of their dowries, and in certain circumsta nces go to great lengths to bring honor to their families. In a northern rural village, three sisters had hung themselves, with a note explaining the financial freedom their parents would have without them. (Verma 2005) The Chinese government has taken a number of steps to combat the practice of female infanticide, as well as promote and protect women's rights. The Marriage Law and Women's Protection Law prohibit female infanticide, and the latter prohibits discrimination against women who give birth to daughters (Hvistendahl 2008).The Sex Selective Abortion Law and Maternal Health Care Law of 1994 were created to put an end to sex selective abortions, and the latter prohibits the use of medical technology to determine the gender of a fetus (Hesketh et al. 2011). Unfortunately, however, the practice continues in China despite these efforts. The availability of modern ultrasound technology is a major contributing factor to sex-selective abortion. The technology was introduced to Chin a in the 1980’s for diagnostic purposes, however, the opportunity to use the technology for sex selection was soon exploited.In 1994, the Chinese Government banned the use of ultrasound technology for the use of sex selection in 1994 in an effort to elevate the number of females born per year and decrease the rate of sex-selective abortions and infanticide (Hesketh et al. 2011). In 2003, the Indian Government implemented the 2002 amendments to the PNDT (Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques) Act, explicitly recognizing the responsibility of manufacturers and distributors, such as GE Healthcare India, to protect against female feticide.Manufacturers must confirm that their customers have valid PNDT certificates and have signed legal documents stating that the equipment shall not be used for sex determination (Mahalingham et al. 2007). Female infanticide is a horrible manifestation of the anti-female bias that continues to pollute societies throughout the world. Even in technological ly advanced and educated societies, the brutal practice continues. The successful eradication of the practice of female infanticide seems an arduous task. In order to combat the phenomenon, careful consideration of the location-specific and cultural factors leading to the practice is necessary.The education of both men and women, social strategies to improve the status of women, and access to family counseling and healthcare may provide means of eliminating female infanticide, as well as elevating the value assigned to women around the globe. In countries such as China and India where the preference of male children has been a part of their cultures history and tradition, one of the only ways to prevent the acts of female infanticide and sex selective abortion is through education. In the early 1990’s less than forty percent of India’s three hundred and thirty million females aged seven and older were literate.Approximately ten years later the numbers improved with six ty five percent of the female population being able to read or write. â€Å"Numerous studies show that illiterate women have high levels of fertility and mortality, poor nutritional status, low earning potential, and less autonomy within the household. †(United Nations 2002) Although there are many schools within India whose curriculum is outstanding and where the student’s performance out does primary schools in the global north there are still many areas where improvement must take place. The government of India must start with setting up more schools and classrooms and providing more teachers at the grass root levels. †(UNICEF) The second step that needs to be taken is to ensure quality teacher training and a solid planned out curriculum for each school to follow across the country. Along with a solid curriculum there needs to be more encouragement of education for girls. If encouragement means giving families incentives to keep their daughters in school, then the government should seriously consider them says the president of the Kanchan Foundation.With an outstanding number of children in upper primary schools across India many girls either drop out or there is not enough space for them so they are forced to leave. By increasing the number of upper primary schools many more girls in India would have the chance of a formal education. Overall the two most populous countries in the world, China and India, are facing what has been described as something close to genocide.With China attempting to control their population size, and India’s historical and cultural preference of male children, both countries are in dire need for daughters in their societies. Between female infanticide and sex selective abortion both countries are running out of potential marriage partners for their male children. With female infanticide and sex selective abortion on the rise the number of kidnapping, and forced marriages of females has also been increas ing. Research shows the answer to the problem is increased education for both male and females throughout both countries.Encouraging girls with their education, and teaching boys and men that women should be valued in society are the first steps in stopping such practices. Although sex selective abortion has been against the law in China since 1994, the practice has been on the rise, particularly with advancing technology. Authority does not watch the practice closely and more recent policy needs to be put in place. It should be both China and India’s goal to give infant females, the same celebrations of life as their male counterparts and to give all women in both countries gender equality.

Different types of stereotyping Essay

In My essay I will discuss stereotyping and different types of stereotyping. I will discuss how in todays society people are stereotyped in different many ways. In today’s society, there are stereotypes for almost any groups that individuals belong to. At some point in any person’s life, they would have experienced stereotyping. For instance, it is often said that all African Americans are good at basketball, males are more aggressive than females, Lawyers are deceitful, and the list goes on. Stereotypes are so wide spread and used so often that they seem to be a natural behaviour for human beings. (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2008) So, what is stereotyping? Why do we categorize individuals into groups? How do stereotypes form? Are all stereotypes accurate summations of groups? These are some of the questions that are discussed in this essay. The purpose of this essay is to give a clear explanation of stereotyping. There is a discussion of a particular incident of stereotyp ing, and this incident is applied to theories relating to stereotyping. Finally, comments are given on the effectiveness of the theories of stereotyping. â€Å"Stereotyping is a form of pre judgement that is as prevalent in today’s society as it was 2000 years ago. It is a social attitude that has stood the test of time and received much attention by social psychologists and philosophers alike. Many approaches to, or theories of stereotyping have thus been raised. This essay evaluates the cognitive approach that categorisation is an essential cognitive process that inevitably leads to stereotyping. Hamilton (1979) calls this a ‘depressing dilemma’. â€Å" â€Å"The Psychology of Stereotyping David J. Schneider p37† â€Å"Brown’s (1995) definition of stereotyping through prejudice is the ‘holding of derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs, the expression of negative affect, or the display of hostile or discriminatory behaviour towards members of a group on account of their membership to that group’. This definition implies that stereotyping is primarily a group process, through the individuals psyche’s within that group. A further idea of stereotyping, defined by Allport (1954) as ‘thinking ill of others without warrant’, is that people ‘make their mind up’ without any personal  experience. This pre judgement about a whole group is then transferred to the stigmatisation of any individuals in that group. It is these ideas that the essay aims to evaluate, through the cognitive process of categorisation and the above definitions that bring about three distinct features of stereotyping, that our cognition can be demonstrated through.â €  The New Economic Sociology: Developments in an Emerging Field (edited by Maruo F. Guillen, Randall Collins, Paula England p224,225)† Media Stereotypes â€Å"Media stereotypes are inevitable, especially in the advertising, entertainment and news industries, which need as wide an audience as possible to quickly understand information. Stereotypes act like codes that give audiences a quick, common understanding of a person or group of people—usually relating to their class, ethnicity or race, gender, sexual orientation, social role or occupation.† Stereotypes are deeply embedded in every society in numerous ways. The dictionary definition of a stereotype is â€Å"one that is regarded as embodying or conforming to a set image or type.† Stereotyping or Labeling is a technique that â€Å"attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable.† These stereotypes become so clichà © that they begin to form daily thoughts and views and one is unable to look beyond them. Racial stereotypes specifically function mostly through propaganda of the media, due to the unlikelihood of every man travelling to every country, using the technique of ‘misinformation’ through movies, shows, and news reports. Egyptians have been stereotyped as desert residents for many years regardless of the reality and actual state of Egypt as a country. For instance, the stereotypes pointing that Egyptians are mostly uneducated due to their ignorance of the importance of education is proven false by studies of trustworthy sources. Among those studies, the one conducted by the American university in Cairo , Egypt . Al-Ahram weekly, a credible newspaper known all across the Arab world, has posted in its October issue of 1998 the following: â€Å"According to Sahar El-Tawila, the principal researcher on the team, interviews conducted with girls and boys nationwide show conclusively that work and marriage were rarely stated by boys and girls respectively as reasons for leaving school. These may be options for those who have already left school, but they are not the impetus behind their decision to leave† (Al-Ahram 1998). â€Å"Remembering Cosmopolitan Egypt: Literature, Culture, and Empire By Deborah Starr page 183† Stereotypes can have excessive damage and it can have a very negative effect on the person in view or as a whole group. Stereotyping is not just another form of making fun of people, it also encourages rejection and outcast. Stereotyping is not only cruel and harmful to people, it can also have major effects on how a person behaves and acts towards other people. It also makes who ever is stereotyping look like a fool. It also forms barriers in communication and everyday life. Conclusion To conclude, the cognitive approach alone does not give us an understanding of stereotyping. However, it does anchor the fact that through our ‘natural’ thought processes we do categorise, which leads to stereotyping. It also highlights the importance of the individual and the group. There are, however, problems that have been overlooked by cognitive psychologists which we need to understand, in order to fully understand the ‘changing dynamics and nature of stereotyping in our society’ (Howitt, et al., 1989). There is also the need to look further than the causes of stereotyping and into its effects in order to understand the processes of our thought, of stereotyping. Bibliography (Al-Ahram 1998). The Psychology of Stereotyping David J. Schneider â€Å"The New Economic Sociology: Developments in an Emerging Field (edited by Maruo F. Guillen, Randall Collins, Paula England p224,225)† Remembering Cosmopolitan Egypt: Literature, Culture, and Empire By Deborah Starr

Sandstone Reservoirs Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Sandstone Reservoirs - Research Paper Example Examples of sandstone reservoirs are found in Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, coastal basins of Equatorial Africa, United States’ Gulf Coast, Rocky Mountains and Southern North Sea (Stoneley 39). 2. Carbonate Rock Reservoirs Carbonate reservoirs comprise of geologic formation that are naturally fractured which are characterized by heterogeneous permeability and porosity distributions. These are the predominant types of reservoirs all over the world accounting for about 50% of all reservoirs. The distinctive aspect of carbonate reservoirs is their intrabasinal origin. Their mode of formation was primarily dependent on organic activities. They were formed through biochemical processes in special environments. Organisms involved in their formation also contributed in determination of their qualities. Carbonate reservoirs are highly susceptible to processes of modification as a result of post-depositional mechanisms. The variations observed among various carbonate reservoirs res ult from processes such as lithification and compaction (Ahr 50). A notable feature of these reservoirs is their high sensitivity to environmental changes. Changes in temperatures affect biogenic activities thus affecting sediment production. This aspect is what makes carbonate reservoir development depth dependent. Favorable conditions enhance organic productivity while in unfavorable conditions productivity ceases. Carbonate reservoirs are considered autochthonous since they develop close to their final depositional sites. Water energy and basin configuration influences deposition which leads to formation of carbonate reservoirs. Examples of carbonate reservoirs are found in Big Horn Basin in Wyoming and south Caspian basin which encompasses... They develop better vugs and fractures that are relatively important for flow and storage of fluids. Carbonate reservoirs are also harder and tighter than sandstone reservoirs (Renpu 9). Primary porosity of sandstone reservoirs is exclusively interparticle while that of carbonate reservoirs can either be intraparticle, interparticle, intercrystalline, vuggy, fenestral or cavernous. Porosity-permeability relationships of sandstones are relatively consistent and dependent on particle texture while that of carbonate reservoirs are highly varied and independent of particle size (Ahr 53). Shale reservoirs differ from sandstone reservoirs in that shale reservoirs can contain organic mudstones which are not present in sandstone reservoirs. They can also have open fractures which are not common in sandstone reservoirs. Conglomerate reservoirs differ from sandstone reservoirs in that conglomerate reservoirs exhibit an extra-high heterogeneity as a result of a complex pore structure. They also display rapid changes in permeability and porosity between their layers which is not the case with sandstone reservoirs (Zou 298). Advantages of Sandstone Reservoirs Porosity of sandstone reservoirs is uniform over time since it does not diminish with increasing saturation of the reservoir. Chemical processes do not affect the permeability and porosity of sandstone reservoirs. Effects and of micro and macro organisms do not impede fluid transfer through sandstone reservoirs as can be the case with carbonate reservoirs (Renpu 11).

Envy at Work - Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Envy at Work - Summary - Essay Example People naturally yearn to be greater than their peers or other people around them. Therefore, such people will tend to develop feelings of envy because they feel inferior to the ones who manifest slightly higher levels of advantage those others. The article captures the differences in the acknowledgment of various issues that occur when individuals attempt gain power and importance over others. The article shows that feelings of envy thrive when people use others as the measure of their success. According to the author, the aspect of success is relative and requires the determination of the differences between a person and the one to whom the comparison is made. The comparison between Marty and Scott illustrates the manner in which fortunes change for people in accordance with the situations, opportunities, and environmental dynamics that affect the process. A more skilled person may miss matters of promotion and personal advancement because of lack of certain qualities that are necessary to connect the people towards certain objectives and opportunities as determined within the range of issues that relate to the subject of envy. The article engages into some of the negative outcomes of envy, which includes lack of concentration of professional motivation. Envy, according to the article and saps the energy and talents of an individual in ways that make it difficult for the persons involves to connect effectively with the processes. In this regard, some of the issues that attend to the determination of the risks and progress at the work place relate to the differences in perceptions between individuals. A person who demonstrates some element of envy will often tend to develop certain attitudes that recognize the difference in achievements and the variations that may occur in the fortunes of individuals. The article illustrates the fact that different people may lack the opportunities and adopt

Law of Patents Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Law of Patents - Case Study Example Purchasing Associates, Inc. v Weitz, 13 NY2d 267, 269 (1963). It should be noted that federal courts will look to the state laws when interpreting the reasonableness of a covenant not to compete or a non competition clause. Thus the first question is where is Frothy Beer located The reason why the situs of Frothy Beer is important is because a reasonable inference of the facts indicates that part of the non-competition agreement states that jurisdiction of any dispute pursuant ot the agreement is within the United States. Judging by the information supplied, Frothy Beer is located in the United States. Because the headquarters of Awessa is located in Australia, Federal Court is the court of jurisdiction because of diversity of citizenship. Vaden v. Discover Bank --- S.Ct. ----, 2009 WL 578636 U.S. (2009). By way of example, if Frothy Beer was located in Virginia, then the federal courts would look to the state of Virginia codes in evaluating the non competition clause between Frothy and Eyus. ... Meissel v. Finley, 198 Va. 577, 579 (Va.Ct.App.1956) ("The possession of trade secrets and confidential information is an important consideration in testing the reasonableness of a restriction on competition.") (citing Stoneman v. Wilson, 169 Va. 239, 240 (Va.1937)). However, Paramount Termite Control Co., Inc. v. Rector, 238 Va. 171, 172 (Va.1989) notes that "Although often used as a justification for non-competition agreements, it is not necessary that the employees actually had acquired or possessed specific information that could be legally defined as confidential or a trade secret, ....")(internal quotations omitted). Here, the federal court would determine, in effect, whether Frothy Beer did or did not have any legitimate business interests worthy of protection. As a result, the district court's analysis of the restrictive covenant (here the non competition agreement) will likely be skewed by the fact that Eyus developed and applied for patents directly related to research and development of beer product within his first two years of employment at Awessa. II. While It Appears at First Blush That Awessa Can Enter into an agreement with U.S.B. Beer, all Environmental Issues in regards to the low carb beer production should first be resolved by Awessa before U.S.B. Beer enters into any transaction or memorandum of understanding. A patent may be awarded for either a product or a process: a product patent creates a monopoly over the manufacture, use and sale of product while a process patent creates a monopoly over the manufacture, use, and sale of a process. U.S. v. Studiengesellschaft Kohle, m.b.H. 670 F.2d

Dissertation- The Importance of human resources development for Dissertation

- The Importance of human resources development for competitiveness in organization - Dissertation Example Date: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Statement 2 This dissertation is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by citations giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Date: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Statement 3 I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for interlibrary loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organizations. Signed: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Date: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ [Please check with university requirements for this section] D e d i c a t i o n [Please fill as required] A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s [Please fill as required] Thank you!!! Contents D e d i c a t i o n 2 A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s 3 Contents 4 List of Figures 7 List of Tables 8 A b s t r a c t 9 Chapter 1 10 Introduction 10 1.1 Overview 10 1.2 Aim of the Study 11 1.3 Objectives of the Study 11 1.3 Methodology Overview 12 1.4 Overview of Chapters 12 1.5 Summary 13 Chapter 2 14 Literature Review 14 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Chosen Company 14 2.3 Learning Organisation 15 2.4 Training vs. Development 17 2.5 Position of Training and Development in HR 18 2.5.1 Importance and Benefits: 21 2.5.2 Impact on Employee Performance 25 2.5.3 Impact on Intellectual Capital 28 2.6 Training and Development and Competitiveness 29 2.7 Summary 32 Chapter 3 33 Research Methodology 33 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Achievability of Objectives 33 3.2.1 Objectives Description 34 3.3 Research Design 34 3.4 Theoretical Framework 37 3.4.1 Research Methods: 38 3.4.2 Chosen Method: 39 3.4.3 Research Validity and Reliability: 40 3.5 Limitations of the Research: 40 3.6 Summary 41 Chapter 4 42 Resea rch Findings and Analysis 42 4.1 Introduction 42 4.2 Response Rate 42 4.3 Demographic Information 43 4.3.1 Gender Distribution 43 4.3.2 Age Distribution 44 4.3.3 Level of Education 44 4.3.4 Work Experience 45 4.4 Useful Information 46 4.4.1 Working for Team 46 4.4.2 Number of Trainings 48 4.4.3 Official Trainings 48 4.4.4 Compulsion on Training 49 4.4.5 Certificate Courses 50 4.5Training and Development 51 4.6 Training and Competitiveness 59 4.7 Analysis of Findings 64 4.8 Summary 66 C h a p t e r 5 67 Conclusions 67 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 Research Conclusions and Recommendations 67 5.3 Further Research Recommendations 71 Bibliography 72 List of Figures Figure 1 Five Disciplines of Learning Organisations 16 Figure 2: Research Design 36 Figure 3: Gender Distribution 43 Figure 4: Age Distribution 44 Figure 5Level of Education 45 Figure 6 Work Experience 46 Figure 7 Current Team 47 Figure 8 Number of Trainings 48 Figure 9 Office Trainings 49 Figure 10 Training Compulsory 50 Figure 11N umber of Certificate Courses 50 Figure 12 Trainings and Jobs 52 Figure 13 Training and Practical Work 53 Figure 14 Training Programs and Companies 54 Figure 15 Training and Development Programs and Performance 55 Figure 16 Work Speed and T&D Programs 56 Figure 17 T&D and Satisfaction 57 Figure 18 T&D and Performance 58 Figure 19 T&D and Specialists 60 Figure 20 T&D and Employee Needs 60 Figure 21 T&D and Company Competitiveness 62 Figure 22 T&D and Motivation 63 Figure 23 T&D and My Performance 64 List of

The Great Pro-Democratic Revolutions of the spring of 2011 in Syria Essay

The Great Pro-Democratic Revolutions of the spring of 2011 in Syria - Essay Example Finally, there will be a comparison between the main topic to the ideas of the Makovsky and Ross thesis in addition to a thorough conclusion. There are three basic myths as analyzed by Makovsky and Ross in the book of Myths, Peace, and Illusions: Finding a New Direction for the US in the Middle East. The first myth shows that all issues concerning the Middle Eastern countries are associated with the conflicts between Israel and Palestine. The second myth is the comparison between the engagement and non-engagement of regimes, changes in regimes and their behavior. The final myth discussed by the two authors concerns the question about the democracy promotion. In the first myth, the Arabs claimed that they had a large population in Palestine before the creation of Israel forgetting there was Jewish population as well. The conflict began when Palestine wanted to create their own Jewish State claiming that they owned, but the Zionists rejected their right. It was claimed that Zionist leaders had a legal mandate for the existence of Israel State which was false as recommended by the UN. According to Ross and Makovsky, the old s aying that everything in the Middle East was connected to everything else gives a better roadmap rather than rejecting any connection between Israel and other matters (Ross & Makovsky, 2010). In the second myth, Ross and Makovsky focus on Iran and their satellites, Hamas, and Hezbollah, with Israel. The pattern of conflict between two-states was repeated when Hamas was voted into power in the year 2006. Hamas had accepted the form of the Israel state, although it rejected the two-state solution claiming that it was meant to destroy Israel. After Ismail Haniyeh was being elected in 2006, he said that Hamas had accepted the formation of a Palestinian state, according to 1967 borders.  Ã‚  

Business Combination Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Combination - Research Paper Example Thus they manufacture petroleum products to a market which is characterized by few firms. Valero experiences a net growth of by 53.21 percent with net revenue $125987 while Marathon Corporation on the other hand has a growth rate of approximately 25.86 percent with a revenue of $78709. As per the financial data, it clearly shows that Valero’s revenue almost doubles the marathon and of the same amount by growth rate. With a $ 15 million in the good will for the CEO to make investments, the company can acquire the services of the marathon to increase their productivity in the market (Hove, 2006). The company should acquire a firm which is in similar line of production as it would be easy to integrate it with ease in the system as the employees can be retained or the existing workers will perform the tasks without difficulty saving the management a lot of cash. This represents a form of diversification in the related fields. Diversification in the unrelated is usually complicated as the organization will have to expand every unit in the system so as to accommodate the new venture. Labor will have to be increased, new units brought and the company missing out on the opportunity to use the economies of scale provided by the existing employees. This would increase the cost of production of the outputs which may result in the high prices making the corporation make losses since prices are determined by the market as the industry is quite competitive. Hence it would be only rational if the management invests in the same line of production since there would be minimum risks involve d. By acquiring marathon corporations, there would various synergies that would help the firms to maximize the profits. The two companies will have a reduced cost of production as there would be sharing of costs. This would make the organization to manufacture at relatively lower costs which will increase the units of output for the market. This will

Concept of courage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Concept of courage - Essay Example Fear is a prerequisite for courage. Fear is the consequence of an insight of vulnerability, which is recognized by the accurate or inaccurate assessment or estimation of a threat as outweighing the individual resources. The only validated scale used to calculate courage was of late produced by Schmidt and Koselka in a cognitive therapy research. The Courage measuring Scale used in this study was constructed 7-item scale. The first three items used were to assess the broad-spectrum of courage, while the last four items assessing panic-specific courage. The scales do not illustrate the number of situational domains, and the third item on the three-item scale questions participants if they are fearless. Despite the fear being said to be a precondition for courage, it is rated to be in a positive direction as other items that result in two high scores. One indicating courage and the other indicating a general absence of fear. Many analysis and correlations were used to see the sights of the relationships among courage, toughness, and physical illness. Hardiness or toughness was not found to be a considerable analyst of physical illness for the participants’ Hardiness was found to be a weak predictor of physical illness for men. There are no other variables in this study that were found to be an important predictor of physical illness, and the variations of the courage scores did not enhance the relationship between hardiness and physical illness when variance accounted for by gender was controlled.

Econometrics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Econometrics - Essay Example The results of the regression are demonstrated in table 2. The coefficient of male is 0.011. This indicates that the number of doctor visits increases if the individual is male by 0.011. The value is not statistically significant at 10, 5 and 1 percent level of significance since the probability is greater than the critical values in each of the alpha value. The regression results are illustrated in the table 3 in the appendix. The male coefficient is 14.89. This coefficient is positive which indicates that males spend 14.89 more on private medical services than the females. The value is statistically significant at the 1 percent level of significance since the probability value is very low. This means that there statistical significance that the level of private expenditure on medical services is highly influenced by gender. The coefficient of number of visits to the doctor in the past years is -0.562. This has been indicated in table 4 below. The coefficient is negative which indicates that there are an inverse relation between the number of visits to the doctor in the past years and health status. When the endogenous variable increases by one unit, the health status will decline by 0.562 units. The coefficient is statistically significant at 1 per cent level of significance indicating that the number of visits to the doctor in the past years is a good indicator of changes in health status. A casual interpretation exists when there is a cause and effect reaction on the regression results (Wayne A. Woodward, 2011). This means that there is a two way impact of the variables. In this case, no casual interpretation exists. This is because the number of doctor visits in the past affects the present health status negatively and on the other hand, health status in the present cannot affect the number of doctor visits in the past. Male: The coefficient of the male is -3.987. This means that when an individual is male, the health status

Social Implications of Surveillance and Security Essay Example for Free

Social Implications of Surveillance and Security Essay Academic Skills – Essay Plan. a. Essay Question: Discuss the social implications of Surveillance and Security (technologies) dealt with in this course. b. Thesis Statement: Surveillance and security plays an active role at a point in everyone’s life by concentrating on the protection of people and property. They both demonstrate that monitoring is of importance. THIS ESSAY ARGUES.. – How Surveillance and Security deal with social implications: First – the surveillance of children There are positive and negatives to both aspects How it is affecting children lives It is a benefit to them – protecting them Who is actually monitoring/ watching them( parents, teachers etc) Protection over people Second – the importance of policy development through the use of cameras Through images – eg that can be used in court Cameras – images – then can be used in court to save others and prove evidence that a person is guilty. Security – protection over property Thirdly – linking – how both surveillance and security (different) One plays a specific role One is more involved in .. certain aspects Helped to do ** They both link as they are both protecting something of importance Helping to keep the world, environment etc safe. ^ bring in other examples – random ones Both Surveillance and Security have from an angle – helped to protect, manage, direct and influence people by monitoring their behaviour, activities and changing information. This essay argues that the social implications of both surveillance and security †¦ In terms of child surveillance – the social implications are the fact that it is affecting children lives, they are surrounded by this whole process of being watched. For example they could be out with friends and still feel on edge c. Point 1: statement plus evidence ( ie. Quote / paraphrase/summary plus give reference to source): Focuses on children in terms of surveillance and the social implication on that topic (case study) focused on – Article â€Å"The Surveillance of Childrens Mobility† In a sense to be a child is to be under surveillance Children surveillance Parents watch their children to keep them safe and to correct their behavior Teachers keep an eye on students to enforce classroom rules and to maintain discipline Managers of shopping malls and ,any other semi-public places use a variety of methods to keep young people under control in order to maintain those spaces for adult usage, sensibilities and consumption Depending on age, which is critical in this context, it can be argues that surveillance as care is a necessary condition of nurturing and educating children and young people As absence of surveillance has been seen as critical to children’s wellbeing and development in some romantically derived liberal regimes of child nurturing. Some regimes ( as in alternative education systems) are now very much the minority as more attention is focused on the child in the family, the school, public space, by parents, educators, the state nad corporations. Freedom for children is (developed world) urban space has become problematic , particularly in the modern era. d. Point 2: statement plus evidence ( ie. Quote / paraphrase/summary plus give reference to source) Focuses on the importance of policy development through the use of cameras ( images and video evidence) as a form of security – to keep us safe. Security is evident through images and video evidence The process of providing evidence that the images are real Used as evidence in court and in formal internal disciplinary matters, they were asked to describe how the images are â€Å"safeguarded†(protected) How they were labeled as to location and time and what chain of custody policies ensured that the images were not tampered with and were they actually the ones the charges were based on Images were common when it came to criminal  or civil. The media were intrigued by the video evidence as it established who commited what crime, although readers not knowing that they were being perceieved by the false truth Images were publicized widely in local newspapers, on television stations and were often shown on news programs. It was proven by the research program that videos played a huge role in assisting in criminal prosecutions, almost as many agencies reported that they had used images from their surveillance systems as evidence in employee disciplinary actions. e. Point 3: statement plus evidence ( ie. Quote / paraphrase/summary plus give reference to source) link them both together now. f. Conclusion: restating thesis and suggesting a connection between different points It is clear therefore that the social implications of the technologies, Surveillance and Security play a vast role in society. The use of monitoring children (is shown) has a direct influence on their well-being, knowing where they are and what they are doing. This adds a sense of relief to important people in their life surrounding them although it interferes with a child’s independence throughout their life. Monitoring is evidence that this activity prevents accidents and inappropriate behaviour, but also encourages good behaviour. The use of monitoring through cameras not only keeps people and property safe but it is a source of evidence ( in terms of images and video evidence) that can be used to provide evidence to prove the elements of a case of the elements of a defense. Child safety, Stuructured separation and property adds a sense of protection ensuring them to feel safe and secure The social implications both surveillance and security deal with being monitored Surveillance of Children Having parents, guardians, managers, teachers etc be a logical ending to what has been previously been discussed. It must pull together all of the parts of your argument and refer the reader back to the focus you have outlined in your introduction and to the central topic. This gives your essay a sense of unity. never contain any new information. usually be only a paragraph in length, but in an extended essay (3000+ words) it may be better to have two or three paragraphs to pull together the different parts of the essay. add to the overall quality and impact of the essay. This is your final statement about this topic; thus it can make a great impact on the reader. This includes observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, or inception of electronically transmitted information. Thesis Statement a. tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion. b. is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper. c. directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel. d. makes a claim that others might dispute. is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation. e. Social Implication – pertaining (relating) to human relations, companionship, society or community and its organizational structure. f. g. This means what you do, in terms of your lifetime, how do your decisions effect How does monitoring through parents etc effect the children How does the use of photos and video evidence affect the end result in protecting / putting the bad away example in jail or be charge with an offence. Protects no only that person but others – saves lives When references sources – how do we reference?

Elements Of Computer Architecture Information Technology Essay

Elements Of Computer Architecture Information Technology Essay A computer is an electronic machine that receives data as an input, manipulates it and provides an output for it in a useful format readable by the user. It is now an important part in the lives of human beings and many scientific advances are due to computers in todays world. Early computers were less in processing speed and memory when compared to modern computers. According to Dumas (2006), computers can be classified into five generations. The first generation of computers came into existence approximately in late 1930s to early 1950s. The second generation of computers came into existence between the mid 1950s to early 1960s. The third generation of computers was developed between mid 1960s to early 1970s. The fourth generation of computers was invented in the mid 1970s to early 1990s. Modern day computers belong to fifth generation of computers. Computer architecture explains about the design and integration of several devices into a single unit. There are three elements in com puter architecture. These elements are input/output devices, internal devices and how computer works. The first element of computer architecture is input/output devices. According to Morley and Parker (2006), an input device means an electronic device used to enter data into the computer. An output device means an electronic device which provides the processed result to the user. In the first generation of computers, input devices were paper punch cards and paper tape and the output was printed on paper. In the second generation of computers, input devices were paper punch cards and magnetic tape whereas the output was printed on punch cards and paper printouts. In the third generation of computers, punched cards were replaced by keyboards as input device and paper printouts were replaced by monitors as output device. In the fourth generation of computers, input devices were keyboard and mouse and the output devices were monitor and printer. The modern computer input devices are keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital camera, touchpad and fingerprint reader. The output devices are monitor, printer, speaker and data projector. According to Anfinson and Quamme (2008), the mouse and keyboard are the most common input devices in the modern computers. The mouse is used as a human computer interface and keyboard is used for entering the text into the computer and the most important output devices are monitor and projectors. Larry and Long (2004) describes that some of the input and output devices are attractive; for instance, there is an electronic nose which detects odors and this is used in food industries to detect the pungent odor in prepared foods. Special input/output devices are called assistive technology and its used for disabled people. These people can work and live independently, for example, a set of rings, two bracelets, a pair of shoes and a glove work as input/output devices for them. The second element of computer architecture is internal components. According to Morley and Parker (2006), the first generation of computers was huge and enormous, often occupying an entire room. They were powered by constantly replaced vacuum tubes or glass tubes identical to a large cylindrical light bulb. These vacuum tubes required a large amount of electricity to work and generated a lot of heat as a result. In the second generation of computers, heat producing vacuum tubes were replaced with transistors. The transistors are a small device made of semiconductor. The transistors with integrated circuit used in the third generation of computers. In the fourth generation of computers, the advanced technology of microprocessors replaced the integrated circuit. Anfinson and Quamme (2008) described the fifth generation or modern computers internal components are tiny when compared with the first generation of computers. These components are motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), Read only memory (ROM), Random access memory (RAM), power supply unit and storage devices. Firstly, the motherboard is the main printed circuit board; furthermore, an important component on the motherboard is the chipset. Secondly, the central processing unit is the most important element of a computer system and it is considered as the computers brain. The central processing unit is sometimes called as a processor. Most calculations take place in the central processing unit. Thirdly, Read only memory is located on the mother board. Read Only Memory (ROM) chips contain instructions accessed directly by the central processing unit. Then, Random Access Memory (RAM) is the temporary storage unit for data and programs that are being accessed by the central processing unit. RAM is a volatile memory, which means that the contents are erased when the computer is powered off. According to White (2008), the electricity enters to shielded metal box called power supply unit. It supplies power to the other components in a computer. These units control the main power into the voltage required to run the machine. Finally, Patterson and Hennessy (2005) explained the three primary technologies used in building memory hierarchies. Main memory is implemented from dynamic random memory, the second one is static random access memory and the last one is magnetic disk. The third element of computer architecture is how the computers work. The central processing unit takes an important role in the working process of the computers. According to Morley and Parker (2006), the central processing unit is basically a collection of electronic circuits and components and it may have variety of registers for string intermediary calculation, temporary storage and the final result of processed data. Arithmetic logic unit is the part of the central processing unit and it performs arithmetic operations and logical operations; for example, arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and logical operations are comparisons and conditions checking. Larry and Nancy (2004) describe that the computers deal with everything as electronic signals; besides, electronic signals are classified into analog and digital signals. The analog and digital convertor converts analog data into digital data, for example analog signals such as letters, sound, images, colors, shapes are converted into digital data as 0s and 1s. 0s and 1s are known as binary numbers and they are classified as digital signals; furthermore, computer can operate only with the digital signals. ASCII (American standard code for information interchange) is the most popular coding system for computers and data communications. This coding system equates a unique series of 0s and 1s, for example, the English character B is 01000010. According to White (2008), software is an important tool compiled by different set of programs. Programs are defined as set of instructions and it can be a single file or recorded data. Operating system is one of the important software in computer and it is used to run the whole system or computer. It establishes rules by which the computer can then load other programs and work with hardware.